The following text is my summary of the Sachs Hornbostel System mainly based on the “Revision of the Hornbostel-Sachs Classification of Musical Instruments” by the MIMO Consortium (2011) and its 2017 Addenda, as published on ICOM Internation Committee of Museums and Collections of Instruments and Music. Other supplementary resources contributed to this summary are also provided in the section “References & Resources” below.
Table of Contents
Definition
- The Sachs Hornbostel System is a system of musical instrument classification established in 1914 by Erich von Hornbostel (1877-1935) and Curt Sachs (1881-1959), published in the Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (1914).
- It has been continually updated throughout the years as new technology and instruments were invented.
- In 2011, the system was revised and updated as part of the work of the Musical Instrument Museums Online (MIMO) Project. It was updated again in 2017
Significance
- The Sachs-Hornbostel musical instrument classification system is the most widely accepted system for classifying musical instruments ethnomusicologists and organologists.
- The system made it possible to classify any instrument from any culture
The Top-level Classification
1. Idiophones
- Definition:
- Idiophones produce sound by being struck, shaken or scraped, causing solid or rigid material vibration without a stretched membrane or string.
- Common material:
- metal, wood, plastic, glass or dried gourds.
- Many of the first invented instruments were idiophones, which date back thousands of years. To mimic hand clapping or stomping feet, these simple instruments were made of bones, rocks, sticks, or shells.
- The idiophones are classified according to the sound initiation process.
- Struck Idiophones
- Lamellaphone Idiophones
- Friction Idiophones
- Blown Idiophones
- Stamping Idiophones
11. Struck Idiophones
- Definition:
- The instrument is made to vibrate by being struck upon.
- Types of struck idiophones:
- Idiophones struck directly
- indirectly struck idiophones
111. Idiophones struck directly
- Definition:
- The player strikes the instrument directly with a stick, striker, beater or hand to trigger vibration.
- Types of idiophones struck directly:
- concussion idiophones/clappers
- percussion idiophones
- Methods: the instrument is struck either with a non-sonorous object (hand, stick, striker) or against a non-sonorous object (human body, the ground)
111.1 Concussion/Clappers
- Definition:
- Concussion idiophones are composed of two or more sonorous parts which are struck against each other.
- Most of these instruments have no identifiable pitch.
- Types of concussion idiophones:
- Sticks
- Plaque
- Vessels
- Troughs
Examples:
Claves
Clapsticks/Bilma/Bimli (origin: Australian Aboriginal)
Examples:
Slapstick/Batacchio
Gu Ban/鼓板 (origin: China)
Pai Ban/拍板 (origin: China)
Examples:
Devil Chaser (origin: Southern Asia)
- Definition:
- Concussion idiophones with even a slight hollow in the surface of a board count as vessel concussion idiophones.
- Types of vessel concussion idiophones
- Castanets (111.141)
- Definition:
- vessel clappers that are naturally or artificially hollowed out
- Definition:
- Cymbals (111.142)
- Definition:
- vessel clappers with manufactured rim
- Definition:
- Bells (111.143)
- Castanets (111.141)
Examples of castanets:
Castanets/Clackers/Palillos (origin: Europe)
Examples of cymbals:
Tibetan Tingsha Cymbals/ཏིང་ཤགས
Clash Cymbals
Example of bells:
Peng Ling/碰铃 (origin: China)
111.2 Percussion
- Definition:
- The instrument is struck either with a non-sonorous object (hand, stick, striker) or against a non-sonorous object (human body, the ground)
- Types of struck (percussion) idiophones:
- Sticks
- Plaques
- Tubes
- Vessels
- Gongs
- Bells
- Boulders
- Sheets
- Struck idiophones can either be made of
- an individual component, or
- a set of several percussion components of different pitches, which are combined to form a single instrument.
- Definition:
- The subcategory of bar struck idiophones include instruments with pitched bars made of metal, stone or wood.
Examples of individual bar struck idiophones:
Triangles
photo by Hannes Grobe
Examples of sets of bar struck idiophones:
Xylophones (wooden bars with shorter resonators)
Marimba (wooden bars with longer resonators)
Metallophones (metal bars)
Ranat ek lek/ระนาดเอกเหล็ก (origin: Thailand)
Balafon (origin: Africa)
Examples:
Lithophones (rock/stone bars)
Bianqing/编磬 (origin: China)
- Definition:
- Tube struck idiophones are instruments made from various lengths of brass, steel, bamboo, or PVC pipe.
Examples:
Tubular Bells/Chimes
Photo by Xylosmygame
Tubulum
- Definition:
- Vessels are hollow objects adopted as percussion instruments, such as pots, cans, bowls and gourds.
Examples:
Udu drum/ùdù (origin: Nigeria)
Water drum
- Definition:
- A gong is a percussive metal disc that can be either flat, or with a central boss or nipple raised. It is played by striking it with a beater.
- For gongs, the vibration is the strongest near the vertex.
- Gongs can be diatonically tuned.
- Types of gongs:
- Individual gongs (111.241.1)
- Sub-categories of individual gongs:
- Bossed gongs, flat gongs (with flange) and intermediate types (111.241.11)
- Gongs with divided surface sounding different pitches (111.241.12)
- Sub-categories of individual gongs:
- Sets of gongs (111.241.2)
- Sub-categories of sets of gongs:
- sets of bossed, flat gongs (with flange) and intermediate types (111.241.21)
- sets of gongs with divided surface sounding different pitches (111.241.22)
- Sub-categories of sets of gongs:
- Individual gongs (111.241.1)
Examples:
Gong (origin: East & Southeast Asia)+
Steel Drum (origin: Trinidad and Tobago)
Bonang (origin: Indonesia)
- Definition:
- For bells, the vibration is the weakest near the vertex.
- Types of bells:
- Individual bells (111.242.1)
- Resting bells (111.242.11)
- Definition:
- the cup is placed on the palm of the hand or on a cushion; its mouth faces upwards
- Definition:
- Suspended bells (111.242.12)
- Definition:
- the bell is suspended from the apex.
- Sub-categories of suspended bells:
- suspended bells struck from the outside (111.242.121)
- Definition:
- There is a separate beater, no striker is attached inside the bell, or
- Definition:
- suspended bells struck from the outside (111.242.121)
- Definition:
- Clapper bells (111.242.122)
- Definition:
- a striker/clapper is attached inside the bell
- Definition:
- Bells with attached external clapper(s) (111.242.123)
- Definition:
- Bells are with attached external clappers
- Definition:
- Resting bells (111.242.11)
- Sets of bells (111.242.2)
- sets of resting bells (111.242.21)
- sets of suspended bells (111.242.22)
- Sub-categories of suspended bells
- sets of suspended bells struck from the outside (111.242.221)
- sets of clapper bells (111.242.222)
- sets of bells with attached exernal clappers (111.242.223)
- Sub-categories of suspended bells
- Individual bells (111.242.1)
Examples:
Bian Zhong/编钟 (origin: China)
Bell Tree
Agogo Bell (origin: Yoruba and Edo)
Slit Drums (origin: Africa, Southeast Asia, Oceania)
Hand Bell (origin: ancient Vedic civilizations)
Photo by Oosoom
Cowbell
Examples:
Rock gongs
112. Indirectly struck idiophones
- Definition:
- The player himself does not go through the movement of striking; percussion results indirectly through some other movement by the player. The intention of the instrument is to yield clusters of sounds or noises, and not to let individual strokes be perceived.
- Types of indirectly struck idiophones:
- shaken (rattles)
- scraped
- split
112.1 Shaken
- Definition:
- Shaken idiophones are objects that create sound by shaking or rattling tiny particles contained within the instrument.
- Method: the player executes a shaking motion.
- Such instruments are mainly rattles with no discernible pitch, and are usually used for rhythmic purpose.
- Types of shaken idiophones/rattles:
- Suspension
- Frame
- Vessel
- Individual
- Definition:
- Suspension shaken idiophones are perforated objects that are mounted together, and shaken to strike against each other.
- Types of suspension rattles
- strung rattles 9112.111)
- Definition:
- Rattling objects are strung in rows on a cord.
- Definition:
- stick rattles (112.112)
- Definition:
- rattling objects are strung on a bar (or ring)
- Definition:
- strung rattles 9112.111)
Example:
Sleigh Bells/Jingle Bells (origin: Europe)
Sistrum with rings
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G7pYdPOS4yw&ab_channel=hathorsystrum
- Definition:
- In frame shaken idiophones, rattling objects are attached to a carrier against which they strike.
- Types of frame rattles
- pendant rattles (112.121)
- Definition:
- rattling objects are hung from a frame
- Definition:
- sliding rattles
- Definition:
- non-sonorous objects slide to and fro in the slots of the sonorous object so that the latter is made to vibrate; or sonorous objects slide to and fro in the slots of a non-sonorous object, to be set in vibration by the impacts
- Definition:
- pendant rattles (112.121)
Examples:
Angklung (origin: West Java)
Flexatone
Tambourine
Photo by CC0 Public Domain
Vibraslap
- Definition:
- In vessel shaken idiophones, rattling objects enclosed in a vessel strike against each other or against the walls of the vessel, or usually against both.
Examples:
African Shekere
Maracas
Photo by Axel Heymann
Rainstick (origin: Chile)
This category is not seen in the Hornbostel-Sachs system, but is created by Jolin to include shaken idiophones that are not attached to or inclose other objects. Sounds are created by rattling, shaking or bending the object.
Examples:
Wobble Board
112.2 Scraped
- Definition:
- the player causes a scraping movement directly or indirectly:
- a non-sonorous object moves along the notched surface of a sonorous object, to be alternately lifted off the teeth and flicked against them; or
- an elastic sonorous object moves along the surface of a notched non-sonorous object to cause a series of impacts.
- the player causes a scraping movement directly or indirectly:
- This group must not be confused with that of friction idiophones
- Such instruments have no discernible pitch and are usually used for rhythmic purpose, and are the main rhythm instrument in some instances.
- Types of scraped idiophones:
- sticks
- tubes
- vessels
- wheels/cog rattles
- boards
- Definition:
- A notched stick is scraped with a little stick.
- Scraped sticks can be:
- with resonator (112.211), or
- without resonator (112.212).
Examples (with resonator):
Yu/敔 (origin: China)
Examples (without resonator):
Jawbones/Quijiada (origin: Latin America)
Photo by Laubrau
Examples:
Kagul/Tagutok/Bantula (origin: Philippine)
- Definition:
- The corrugated surface of a vessel is scraped.
Examples:
Latin Guiro
Photo by g_kat26
Reco-reco (origin: Africa & Latin America)
Photo by Martimsaintive
- Definition:
- A cog wheel, whose axle serves as the handle, and a tongue fixed in a frame which is free to turn on the handle; when whirled, the tongue strikes the teeth of the wheel one after another.
Examples:
Ratchet/Noisemaker/Knarre
Photo by Salvatore Capalbi
Examples:
Washboard
112.3 Split
- Definition:
- Instruments in the shape of two springy arms connected at one end and touching at the other.
- In some examples the arms are forced apart by a little stick, to jingle or vibrate on recoil.
- Instruments in the shape of two springy arms connected at one end and touching at the other.
12. Lamellaphone Idiophones
- Definition:
- Lamellaphones create sound by plucking flexible tines or “lamellae,” i.e. elastic plaques, which are fixed to one end. The lamellae are flexed and released to return to rest.
- Types of lamellaphones:
- Frame-formed
- Board-formed or comb-formed
- Definition:
- The lamella vibrates within a frame or hoop.
- Frame-formed lamellaphones can be further categorised into:
- Clack idiophones (121.1)
- Definition:
- The lamella is carved on the surface of a fruit shell that is used as a resonator.
- Definition:
- Guimbardes (121.2)
- Definition:
- The lamella is mounted in a rod- or plaque- shaped frame and uses the player’s mouth cavity for resonance.
- Types:
- idioglot guimbardes (121.21)
- Definition:
- The lamella is carved in the frame itself, with the bass remaining fixed to the frame.
- Definition:
- heteroglot guimbardes (121.22)
- Definition:
- A lamella is attached to a frame.
- Types of heteroglot guimbardes
- single (121.221), or
- in sets (with different pitches) (121.222)
- Definition:
- idioglot guimbardes (121.21)
- Definition:
- Clack idiophones (121.1)
Examples:
Jew’s harp
Photo by Dan Moi
Kou Xian/口弦 (origin: China)
Đàn môi (origin: Vietnam)
Photo by Codell
- Definition:
- The lamellae are attached to a board or cut out from a board like the teeth of a comb.
- Board- or comb- formed lamellaphones can be further categorised into:
- with laced-on/hooked in lamellae (122.1)
- Types:
- without resonator (122.11) – on a plain board
- with resonator (122.12) – with a box or bowl below the board
- Types:
- with cut-out lamellae (122.2)
- pins on a cylinder pluck the lamellae
- with laced-on/hooked in lamellae (122.1)
Examples:
Music Box (cut-out lamellae)
Mbira (origin: Zimbabwe)
Photo by Alex Weeks
Gogo Ilimba (origin: Tanzania)
13. Friction Idiophones
- Definition:
- The instrument is designed to vibrate through friction.
- Types of friction idiophones:
- sticks
- plaques
- vessels
- sheets
- Friction idiophones can either be made of
- an individual component, or
- Definition:
- Sound is produced by using a moistened finger on the instrument to create friction.
- Definition:
- a set of two components
- Definition:
- Sound is created by scraping or rubbing together two objects.
- Definition:
- an individual component, or
Types of stick friction idiophones:
- with direct friction (131.21)
- The sticks themselves are rubbed.
- with indirect friction (131.22)
- the sticks are connected to those which are rubbed and, by transmitting their longitudinal vibration, induce the transverse vibration of the former.
Examples:
Sandpaper block
Array Nail Violin
Cristal Baschet
Examples:
Singing Bowl
Glass Harmonica
Glass Harp
14. Blown Idiophones
- The instrument is made to vibrate by being blown upon.
- Types of blown idiophones:
- sticks
- plaques
- Blown idiophones can either be made of:
- an individual component, or
- a set of components
Example:
Aeolsklavier
Example:
Piano Chanteur
15. Metal Sheets
- Definition:
- The vibrating material consists of a flexible sheet or metal such as the thunder sheet or musical saw.
- Types of metal sheets
- played by friction (151)
- directly struck (152)
- played by shaking (153)
- shaken or indirectly struck (154)
16. Flexed Diaphragms
- Definition:
- A diaphragm is flexed when a string passing through the centre is pulled, before returning to rest.
Example:
Modified yogurt pot or metal watering-can mimicking the sound of a clucking cockerel
17. Shaken spring
Example:
Thunder tube
Stamping Idiophones
- Methods: stamping idiophones’ sound is created by stamping, beating, or tapping feet or sticks.
- Stamping idiophones are often associated with ceremonial or traditional dancing.
Examples:
Flamenco dancer stamping feet to create a percussion sound
Irish Step Dancing
Photo by Steven Saus
Australian Aborigines Stamping Feet with Clapping Sticks
2. Membranophone
- Definition:
- Membranophones are instruments that produce sound by vibrating a stretched skin or membrane.
- The membranophones are classified into two categories:
- Struck drums
- Rattle drums
- Friction drums
- Singing membranes
21. Struck Drums
- Definition:
- Vibration is initiated by striking the membranes with a stick, mallet, beater, keyboard or hand.
- Types of struck drums:
- Vessel
- Tubular
- Frame
211.1 Vessel Drums
- Definition:
- The single playing head encloses a body in the form of a vessel or a bowl.
- Alias: kettle drums
- Vessel drums can either be made of:
- seperate vessel drums (211.11), or
- a set of vessel drums (211.12).
211.2 Tubular Drums
- Definition:
- Tubular drums are tubular in shape, with membranes enclosing one or both ends.
- Tubular drums can either be
- single-skinned, or
- double-skinned
- double-skinned tubular drums can either be
- with single playing heads, or
- with both heads playable.
- double-skinned tubular drums can either be
- Tubular drums can also either be
- individual, or
- in a set.
- Types of tubular drums
- cylindrical
- barrel shaped
- double-conical
- hourglass-shaped
- conical
- goblet-shaped
- cylindro-conical
- vase shaped
The diameter of cylindrical drums is the same at the ends and the middle.
Occasionally, the ends will taper slightly or have projecting discs.
Examples:
Ganrang (origin: South Sulawesi)
Surdo (origin: Brazil)
Photo by Chris
Tambourin de Provence (origin: France)
Photo by Glordan, Albert
Davul (origin: Turkey)
The middle of barrel-shaped drums is larger than the ends. The body is curvilinear.
Examples
Yonggo/용고/龍鼓
Taphon/ตะโพน (origin: Thailand)
Photo by Tangmo
Kabero (origin: Eritrea, Sudan and Ethiopia)
Klong khaek/กลองแขก (origin: Thailand)
Photo by Paul_12
Dhak/ঢাক (origin: India)
Photo by Biswarup Ganguly
Dagu/大鼓 (origin: China)
Waidaiko/和太鼓 (origin: Japan)
The middle of double-conical drums is larger than the ends. The body is rectilinear with angular profile.
Examples:
Mridangam (origin: India)
Pakhava (origin: India)
The middle of hourglass-shaped drums is smaller than the ends. They are also referred to as waisted drums.
Examples:
Talking Drums (origin: West Africa)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B4oQJZ2TEVI
Tsuzumi/鼓 (origin: Japan)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AEdfX0OVn68
Jiegu/羯鼓 (origin: China)
Idakka/ഇടയ്ക്ക (origin: South India)
The diameters at both ends of the conical drum differ considerably in size, with one end larger than the other.
Some minor departures from strict conicity should be disregarded.
Examples:
Betá (origin: Nigeria)
Conga (origin: Cuba)
Photo by Culturalis
The body consists of two sections:
- the main section which is either cup shaped or cylindrical, and
- a slender stem.
They are often made of metal, pottery, or wood in a variety of sizes.
They are most common in Africa, South Asia and Middle Eastern countries.
They have a single playing membrane.
Examples:
Tombak/تنپک, تنبک, دنبک، تمپک (origin: Persia)
Darbouka (origin: Egypt, Armenia and Turkey)
Photo by Rani777
Klong Yao/กลองยาว
The body consists of two sections:
- the upper section which is cylindrical, and
- a conical lower section.
Examples:
Uganda drum (origin: East Africa)
Photo by Tropenmuseum
The body is waisted and rests on a flared open foot.
The body consists of two sections:
- the upper conical section, and
- the lower section which is either rectilinear or curvilinear and tapers towards the foot.
Examples:
211.3 Frame Drums
- Definition:
- Frame drums are typically shallow and the depth of the body does not exceed the radius of the membrane.
- Types of frame drums:
- frame drums without handle (211.31)
- sub-categories of frame drum without handle:
- single-skin frame drums (211.311)
- double-skin frame drums (211.312)
- sub-categories of frame drum without handle:
- frame drum with handle (211.32)
- Definition:
- a stick is attached to the frame in line with its diameter
- Sub-categories of frame drum with handle
- single-skin frame drum with handle (211.321)
- double-skin frame drum with handle (211.322)
- Definition:
- frame drums without handle (211.31)
Examples:
Adufe (origin: Moors)
Photo by Lionel Scheepmans
Tambourine
Photo by CC0 Public Domain
Skor Yike/ស្គរយីកេ (origin: Cambodian)
Bodhrán (origin: Ireland)
Photo by Air Force Brands
Dhyāngro (origin: Nepap)
Photo by Krish Dulal
212. Rattle Drums
- Alias: Pellet drum
- Definition:
- the drum is shaken; percussion is by impact of attached pellets, or similar objects
- Types of rattle drums
- vessel rattle drum (212.1)
- tubular rattle drum (212.2)
- Sub-categories of tubular rattle drums
- cylindrical rattle drums (212.21)
- barrel-shaped rattle drums (212.22)
- double-conical rattle drums (212.23)
- hourglass-shaped rattle drums (212.24)
- Sub-categories of tubular rattle drums
- frame rattle drums (212.3)
The middle of barrel-shaped drums is larger than the ends. The body is curvilinear.
Examples:
Tao Gu/鼗(táo)鼓 (origin: China), or
Den-den Daiko/でんでん太鼓 (origin: Japan)
Photo by Ebiebi2
The middle of hourglass-shaped drums is smaller than the ends. They are also referred to as waisted drums.
Examples:
Damru/डमरु,/ཌ་མ་རུ (origin: South Asia, the Himalayas, and Mongolia)
Photo by Jean-Pierre Dalbéra
Glong banthoh/กลองบัณเฑาะว์ (origin: Thailand)
23. Friction Drums
- Definition:
- The membrane head of the drum is made to vibrate by friction.
- Types of friction drums:
- with stick
- with cord
- hand friction
A stick, attached to the membrane, is rubbed or is employed to rub the membrane.
The stick can either be
- inserted through a hole in the membrane (231.1), or
- sub-categories:
- fixed insertion (231.11)
- The stick is fixed and is subjected to friction by rubbing.
- semi-fixed insertion (231.12), or
- The stick is movable to an extent to rub the membrane when it is rubbed by the hand.
- free stick (231.13)
- The stick can be moved freely and is employed to rub the membrane.
- fixed insertion (231.11)
- sub-categories:
- tied to the membrane in an upright position (231.2)
- commonly seen in European friction drums
Putipù (origin: Southern Italy)
Photo by Universidad Nacional de La Plata
Examples of friction drums with inserted sticks:
Furro (origin: Venezuela)
Cuica (origin: Brazil)
Photo by っ
Rommelplot (origin: Europe)
A cord, attached to the membrane, is rubbed.
Types of friction drums with cord:
- stationary friction drums with friction cord (232.1), or
- sub-categories
- single-skin drums (232.11), or
- double-skin drums (232.12)
- sub-categories
- friction drums with whirling sticks (232.2)
- Definition:
- the drum is whirled on a cord which rubs on a notch in the holding stick.
- Definition:
Examples of stationary friction drums with friction cord:
Buhay/Бугай (origin: Ukraine)
Examples of friction drums with shirling stick
Waldteufel/Woods Devil
Vibration is created by rubbing the hand against the membrane.
24. Singing Drums
- Definition:
- Vibration is made by speaking or singing into the membrane. The membrane does not produce a note of its own but merely modifies the voice.
- Types of singing membranes:
- free kazoos
- tube- or vessel-kazoos
- Alias: mirlitons
The membrane is incited directly without a chamber.
Examples:
Comb-and-paper
A membrane is placed on top of a tube or a box. Vibration is made by singing or speaking into the chamber, amplifying the voice or singing.
Examples:
Kazoo (origin: America)
Photo by Drhaggis
Eunuch flutes/Onion flutes/flûte eunuque (origin: France)
3. Chorophones
- Definition:
- Chordophones are instruments whose sound is created by the vibration of one or more strings stretched between fixed points on a resonant body.
- Playing methods:
- They are stringed instruments that are either plucked, bowed, or strummed in a variety of ways.
- The chordophones are classified into the following categories:
- Simple chordophones (also referred to as “zithers”)
- Composite chordophones
- Variable tension chordophones (also referred to as “plucked drums”)
31. Simple chordophones or zithers
- Simple chordophones/zithers have a string or parallel strings that run through the entire length of a string bearer.
- The instrument may contain a resonator, but the resonator is not integral and can be detached without destroying the sound-producing apparatus.
- The body of the instrument may also act as a resonator, but sometimes a supplemental resonator is added.
- Types of simple chordophones
- Bar zithers
- Tube zithers
- Raft zithers
- Board zithers
- Trough zithers
- Frame zithers
311. Bar zithers
- Definition:
- The string bearer is bar-shaped.
- Types of bar zithers
- musical bows, and
- stick zithers
Musical bows are stringed instruments where a string or multiple strings are attached to a wooden stick forming a bow that is curved and flexible.
There is speculation that their origins are linked to hunting bows.
Playing methods:
- played with a stick or finger,
- can include a resonator such as a gourd, or
- by holding the end of the bow in the mouth to amplify the sound.
Types of musical bows
- idiochord musical bows (311.11)
- Definition:
- The string is made from the same material as its resonating body, remaining attached at each end.
- Sub-categories of idiochord musical bows:
- mono-idiochord musical bows (311.111), or
- Definition:
- The bow has only one idiochord string.
- Definition:
- poly-idiochord musical bows (311.112)
- Definition:
- The bow has several idiochord strings which go over a toothed stick or bridge.
- Definition:
- mono-idiochord musical bows (311.111), or
- Definition:
- Heterochord musical bows (311.12)
- Definition:
- The string is made from a different material from the beater.
- Heterochord musical bows can either be:
- with tuning noose, or
- Definition:
- around the string is passed a fibre noose, splitting it into two parts.
- Definition:
- without tuning noose.
- with tuning noose, or
- Sub-categories of heterochord musical bows:
- Mono-heterochord musical bows (311.121), or
- Definition:
- The bow has only one heterochord string.
- Mono-heterochord musical bows can either be
- without a resonator (311.121.1), or
- with resonator (311.121.2)
- The resonator could be
- Attached resonator, or
- Independent resonator
- The resonator could be
- Definition:
- Poly-heterochord musical bow (311.122)
- Definition:
- The bow has several heterochord strings.
- Definition:
- Mono-heterochord musical bows (311.121), or
- Definition:
Examples:
Khou (origin: Botswana, Africa) (simple bow resonated by the mouth)
Berimbau (origin: Africa, Brazil) (simple bow, resonated by a gourd)
The string bearer is a rigid stick, usually with a gourd resonator attached.
Types of stick zithers:
- Musical bow cum stick (311.21), or
- Definition:
- The string bearer has one flexible, curved end (NB if both ends are flexible and curved, it is counted as a musical bow).
- Definition:
- (True) stick zithers
- Sub-categories of true stick zithers:
- with one resonator gourd, or
- with several resonator gourds.
- Sub-categories of true stick zithers:
Examples:
Kse diev/ខ្សែដៀវ (origin: Cambodia) (Musical bow cum stick)
Phin pia/พิณเพียะ (origin: Thailand) (Musical bow cum stick)
Dan bau/Đàn bầu (origin: Vietnam) ((true) stick zither)
Mvet (origin: the Fang people of Central Africa) ((true) stick zither)
Rudra veena (origin: Hindustani classical music) ((true) stick zither)
312. Tube zithers
- Definition:
- The string bearer is a vaulted surface. The tube is used both as an instrument’s neck and as a resonator.
- Tube zithers are typically made from bamboo, since bamboo is naturally hollow.
- Types of tube zithers:
- Whole-tube zithers
- half-tube zithers
The string carrier is a complete tube.
Types of whole-tube zithers:
- Idiochord tube zithers, or
- Heterochord tube zithers
- Sub-categories
- without extra resonator (312.121), or
- with extra resonator (312.122)
- Sub-categories
Examples:
Valiha (origin: Madagascar) (idiochord tube zither)
Đàn goong (origin: the Mnong people of central Vietnam)
Sasando (origin: Roto Island, Indonesia) (heterochord tube zither with extra resonator)
Benta (origin: Jamaica) (Idiochord)
Apache fiddle (origin: the Indigenous Apache people of the southwestern U.S.)
The strings are stretched along the convex surface of a gutter.
Types of half-tube zithers
- Idiochord half-tube zithers
- Heterochord half-tube zithers
Examples:
Tadcheng/Ayyuding (origin: the Ifugao people of the Phillipines)
313. Raft zithers
- Definition:
- The string bearer is a raft tied together from multiple canes of bamboo or wood.
- Types of raft zithers:
- Idiochord raft zithers (313.1), or
- Heterochord raft zithers (313.2)
Examples:
Tiahun (origin: the Bwaba people of Burkina Faso, West Africa)
314. Board zithers
- Definition:
- The string bearer is a board.
- Types of board zithers:
- True board zithers (314.1), or
- Board zither variations (314.2)
The plane of the strings is parallel with that of the string bearer.
Types of true board zithers
- without resonator (314.11), or
- with resonator
- Sub-categories:
- with resonator bowl (314.121)
- Definition:
- The resonator is a fruit shell or similar object, or an artificially carved equivalent.
- Definition:
- with resonator box (box zither) (314.122)
- Definition:
- The resonator is made from slats.
- Definition:
- with resonator bowl (314.121)
- Sub-categories:
Examples:
Trumba Marine (origin: medieval and Renaissance Europe)
Clavichord (origin: Western Europe)
Santur/سنطور (origin: Iranian or Mesopotamian)
Guqin/古琴 (origin: China)
Qanun/قانون / קָנוֹן (origin: Middle East)
The plane of the strings is at right angles to the string bearer.
Types of board zither variations
- Ground zithers, or
- Definition:
- The ground is the string bearer and there is only one string.
- Definition:
- Harp zithers
- Definition:
- A board serves as string bearer; there are several strings and a notched bridge.
- Definition:
Examples:
See “harp zither” from the Bambinga people of the Uele district, Congo-Kinshasa
http://music.africamuseum.be/instruments/english/congo%20drc/mvet.html
315. Trough zithers
- Definition:
- The strings are stretched across the mouth of a trough.
- Types of trough zithers:
- without resonator (315.1)
- with resonator (315.2)
- Definition:
- The trough has a gourd or a similar object attached to it.
- Definition:
Examples:
Inanga (origin: Rwanda and Uganda)
316. Frame zithers
- The strings are stretched across an open frame.
- Types of frame zithers:
- without resonator (316.1)
- with resonator (316.2)
32. Composite Chordophones
- Composite chordophones are chordophones in which a string bearer and a resonator are organically united and cannot be separated without destroying the instrument.
- The structure of composite chordophones often includes a neck, yoke or another component that acts as a string holder.
- Types of composite chordophones:
- Lutes
- Harps
321. Lutes
- Lutes are stringed instruments where the strings run parallel to the sound table.
- Lutes often consist of a neck and a resonator.
- The neck is attached to the body so that it cannot be removed without breaking the instrument’s function as a string bearer and resonator.
- Types of lutes
- bow lutes
- yoke lutes
- handle lutes
Each string has its own flexible carrier.
Examples:
Pluriarc (origin: Nigeria, Africa)
The strings are attached to a yoke which lies in the same plane as the sound-table and consists of two arms and a cross-bar.
Types of yoke lutes/lyres:
- Bowl lyres (321.21)
- Definition:
- A natural or carved-out bowl serves as the resonator, usually with a membrane stretched over the resonator bowl.
- Definition:
- Box lyres (321.22)
- Definition:
- A built-up wooden box serves as the resonator. It typically consists of a wooden soundboard, but the skin may also be extended over a resonant box structure.
- Definition:
Examples:
Endongo (origin: Uganda) (bowl lyre)
Beganna (origin: Ethiopia) (box lyre)
The string bearer is a plain handle. Subsidiary necks and yoke are disregarded.
Types of handle lutes:
- Spike lutes (321.31)
- Definition:
- The handle or neck passes diametrically through or over the resonator.
- Sub-categories:
- Spike bowl lutes (321.311)
- Definition:
- The resonator consists of a natural or carved-out bowl.
- Definition:
- Spike box lutes/spike guitars (321.312)
- Definition:
- The body of the instrument is in the form of a box.
- Definition:
- Spike tube lutes (321.313)
- Definition:
- The handle passes diametrically through the walls of a tube (where the depth of the body exceeds the radius of the membrane).
- Definition:
- Spike frame lutes (321.314)
- Definition:
- The handle passes diametrically through the walls of a circular frame (where the depth of the body does not exceed the radius of the membrane).
- Definition:
- Spike bowl lutes (321.311)
- Definition:
- Necked lutes (321.32)
- Definition:
- The handle is attached to or carved from the resonator, like a neck.
- Sub-categories:
- Necked bowl lutes (321.321)
- Necked bow lutes/necked guitars (321.322)
- Definition:
- Half-spike lutes or tanged lutes (321.33)
- Definition:
- The handle is neither attached to the resonator nor passes all the way through it but terminates within the body.
- Sub-categories:
- Half-spike or tanged bowl lutes (321.331)
- Half-spike or tanged box lutes (321.332)
- Definition:
Examples:
Banjo (spike frame lute)
Kamancheh/کمانچه (origin: Iran) (spike bowl lute)
Masenqo/መሰንቆ (origin: Ethiopia) (spike bowed lute)
Erhu/二胡 (origin: China) (Spike tube lute)
Sarangi/सारंगी (origin: India)
Violin (origin: necked box lute)
Pipa/琵琶 （origin: China) (necked bowl lute)
Kendara/କେନ୍ଦରା ଗୀତ (origin: Odisha, India) (necked box lute)
Buzuk/بزق (origin: Lebanon and Syria)
Bağlama/saz/ساز
Bedouin rabāba/ربابة(origin: Arabic) (spike box lute or spike guitar)
322. Harps
- Definition:
- Harps are stringed instruments where the plane of the strings lies at right angles to the sound-table; a line joining the lower ends of the strings would point towards the neck.
- Harps have three basic structural components: resonator, neck, and strings.
- Types of harps:
- Open harps
- Frame harps
- Spike harps with tall stringholders
- Tanged harps with tall stringholders
Harps without a pillar.
Types of open harps:
- Arched harps (322.11)
- Definition:
- The neck is bow-shaped, curving away from the resonator.
- Sub-categories:
- Wachsmann type 1 (322.111)
- Definition:
- The neck rests on the bottom of the resonator.
- Definition:
- Wachsmann type 2 (322.112)
- Definition:
- The tanged neck fits tightly into a hole at the narrow end of the resonator.
- Definition:
- Wachsmann type 3 (322.113)
- Definition:
- A carved finial extends from the resonator, usually in the form of the human head; it is often tied to the neck.
- Definition:
- Wachsmann type 1 (322.111)
- Definition:
- Angular harps (322.12)
- Definition:
- The beck makes a sharp angle with the resonator.
- Definition:
Examples:
Andungu (origin: Uganda) (Arched harp Wachsmann type 1)
Kundi (origin: Zande People of Central Africa) (Arched harp Wachsmann type 2)
Arched harp of the Fang people (possibly) (Arched harp Wachsmann type 3)
Photo from the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Ardin/آردين (origin: Mauritania) (Angular harp)
Harps with a pillar.
Types of frame harps:
- without tuning actions (322.21)
- Sub-categories
- diatonic frame harps (322.211)
- chromatic frame harps (322.212)
- Sub-categories
- with the strings in one plane (322.212.1)
- with the strings in two planes crossing one another (322.212.2)
- with the strings in two or more parallel planes (322.212.3)
- Sub-categories
- Sub-categories
- with tuning actions (322.22)
- Definition:
- The strings can be shortened by mechanical action
- Sub-categories:
- with manual actions (322.221)
- Definition:
- The strings can be altered by mechanical actions
- Definition:
- with pedal actions (322.222)
- Definition:
- The strings may be altered by pedals
- Definition:
- with manual actions (322.221)
- Definition:
Examples
Pedal harp/concert harp (frame harp with pedal tuning action)
Celtic harp (frame harp with manual action)
Triple harp (frame harp with strings in two or more parallel planes)
The plane of the strings lies at right angles to the soundtable; a tall stringholder or bridge holds the strings at successive levels, their sounding lengths increasing with their distance from the soundtable; the body resembles a spike lute, with a neck bisecting a calabash resonator.
Types of spike harps with tall stringholders
- Arched spike harps with tall stringholders (323.1)
- Definition:
- The neck curves away from the resonator.
- Definition:
- Spike harps with pressure bridges (bridge harps or harp-lutes) (323.2)
- Definition:
- Straight neck, notched bridge.
- Definition:
Examples:
Bolon (origin: Guinea) (Arched spike harps with tall stringholders)
Kora (origin: Gambia) (Spike harps with pressure bridges (bridge harps or harp-lutes))
A carved extension of the resonator forms the socket for the shaft of the neck.
Example (maybe)
(Photo from https://www.pinterest.fr/pin/226657793717417590, suggested by Pedro Monteiro)
33. Variable tension chordophones or “plucked drums”
- Definition:
- The vibrations of a plucked string are passed on to a membrane. Alteration of pitch is produced by the variation of tension in the string.
- Plucked drums are widespread in South Asia.
- Types of variable tension chordophones/plucked drums
- with loose string attached to the drum-head
- with string attached to the end of a neck and to the drum-head.
Examples:
Anandalahari/আনন্দলহরী/आनन्दलहरी (origin: India)
Khamak/খমক (origin: Bengal, Odisha and North East India)
Examples:
Ektara/gopijiantra/एकतारा (origin: India)
References & Resources
- Revision of the Hornbostel-Sachs Classification of Musical Instruments by the MIMO Consortium (2011)
- 2017 Addenda to the MIMO Hornbostel Sachs classification of Musical Instruments (2017, CIMCIM Working Group on Classification)
- CIMCIM (ICOM International Committee of Museums and Collections of Instruments and Music)
- Musical Instrument Museum Online (MIMO)
- Berklee Online – World Music Composition Styles Online Course
- Wikipedia: List of Musical Instruments
- All The Musical Instruments of the World: Classification of Musical Instruments
- Bamboo Instruments
- ISKO Encyclopedia of Knowledge: Hornbostel-Sachs Classification of Musical Instruments by Deborah Lee
- Encyclopedia of Percussion by John Beck
- Origin & Development of Musical Instruments by Jeremy Montagu
- Geographical Distribution of the Musical Bow by OTIS T. MASON
- Dan Moi World Music Instruments
- Musicologist Jeremy Montagu’s Website
- Música Para Ver World Instruments
- Horniman Museum & Gardens “Musical Instrument Collection”
- Galpin, F. W. “The Whistles and Reed Instruments of the American Indians of the North-West Coast.”Proceedings of the Musical Association 29 (1902): 115-38. Accessed November 22, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/765327.
- Virtual Instrument Museum
Part 1 is fantastic! Is there a Part 2 for aerophones and electrophones?
Hi Miriam, thank you for your kind words. There is a part two here: https://jolinjiang.com/2021/02/15/musical-instrument-classification-sachs-hornbostel-system-part2/
Enjoy 🙂